ART HISTORY

INDEX:

Beato Angelico

His real name was Giovanni da Fiesole, his secular name is Guido di Pietro but he will go down in history as Beato Angelico. He started a miniature school which was flanked by the production of polyptychs and altarpieces.

STYLE:

  • almost calligraphic refinement of detail and chromatic brightness
  • his works are considered the expression of a meditative practice
  • combines models related to medieval aesthetics (educational role of art and the symbolic value of light) with Renaissance elements (naturalism and the adoption of perspective)
  • use of clear, bright and brilliant colors, combined in a delicate tonal harmony


    • WORKS:

    Beato Angelico, Annunciation, 1425 - 1426, fresco, 230 x 321 cm. Florence, Convent of San Marco

    Maria is sitting on a simple three-legged stool with her hands crossed on her lap. The Virgin is facing left towards the Archangel Gabriel who brings her the divine message of her conception. She wears a light dress and a blue cloak. Behind her head is painted a circular and golden halo. The Archangel Gabriel is kneeling on the left and facing the Virgin. He wears a long tunic. The two sacred characters are sheltered by a loggia covered by round arches supported by Corinthian columns. The back wall is interrupted by an opening that leads to a room that seems empty. Inside there is a small window with cross bars that overlooks the external vegetation. Chiaroscuro is present even if moderate. However, the physiognomies, gestures and expressions are idealized to tell the supernatural and divine reality. The lighting comes from the left and coincides with the window that illuminates the room in which it was painted. In this way the virtual space of the work and the physical space are connected and the observer experiences a greater involvement.

    Beato Angelico, Deposition of Christ (Altarpiece of Santa Trinità), 1432-1434. Tempera on panel. 176 x 185 cm. Florence, Museo di San Marco

    The scene of Christ deposed from the cross takes place all in the foreground and there is one of the most typical features of the Angelico: the use of clear, bright and bright colors, combined in a delicate tonal harmony. The representation remains in balance between the tone of gravity that befits the sacred scene and the picturesque vivacity in the environmental recreation. Despite the firm volume of the figures, especially that of the anatomically shaped naked Christ, there is no convincing representation of the weight and action, with the figures on the stairs that seem to levitate in the air (they appear static). On the other hand, attention to detail is remarkable, such as the marks of the lashes on the body of Jesus, or the detailed rendering of the characters' physiognomies. The lateral groups are divided between the pious women of the left, who are preparing to welcome the body in the shroud, and the group of men of the right, among whom there are scholars, who discuss the symbols of the Passion. The light in this work is widespread and for this reason it is difficult to understand where it comes from. The soil is covered by a dense series of small plants described in detail, which allude to spring, understood both as a historical period in which the scene took place, and as a symbol of rebirth.

    Paolo Uccello

    Paolo Uccello, a Florentine painter, dedicated his life to the most difficult and impossible prospective studies. His stay in Venice, where the taste for the elegance of Gothic art was alive, helped to blend in him elements of the courtly world and Renaissance innovation. His use of perspective is very different from that of Masaccio and Donatello: his paintings are unreal and fantastic images because each group of shapes is built with an autonomous perspective.

    WORKS:

    Paolo Uccello, Equestrian Monument to Giovanni Acuto, 1436, fresco on canvas, 820 x 515 cm. Florence, Cathedral of Santa Maria del Fiore

    The painted figures present a sculptural chiaroscuro that enhances the muscular masses. In fact, the contrast between the shaded areas and the illuminated parts highlights the anatomy with a descriptive cut. This tendency is defined by historical analytical realism and consists in describing in detail. The figure thus results from the sum of the different parts carefully painted and assembled in the image. The figures are taken from the reading of the environmental context and present details just mentioned. Analytical realism generally conveys an abstract and ideal impression because it does not take into account the atmospheric effect. The figure of the leader thus assumes a symbolic and timeless value. The painting can be considered a monochrome in green earth and suggests the surface of a bronze statue. Instead, the harness of the horse is red-orange. Finally the background of warm color, red ocher highlights the complementary contrast of the figures of the leader and the horse. The lighting of the scene is consistent with the natural light that comes from the windows of the cathedral. The altar and the upper case are drawn with a bottom-up perspective that is not consistent with that of the figures. In fact, the horse and the leader are represented with frontal perspective at the height of the observer. In the architectural part are prevalent vertical and horizontal lines that create an orthogonal schematization of the space. In the upper part, the contours of the figures create curved linearities that underline the profile of the shapes.

    Paolo Uccello, Battle of San Romano. Niccolò da Tolentino at the head of the Florentine cavalry, circa 1438, tempera on board, 181 320 cm, London, National Gallery

    The colors used are particularly bright. In addition to traditional pigments, the artist used lacquers. These colors are transparent and spread by veiling over the painting and make the colors almost glassy. He also applied silver foils to simulate the metal of the armor. The horses, as in the title panel, are treated as a solid and semi-transparent surface. The animals then take on shades of pink, yellow and blue and become almost fairy-tale. Their body seems to be constructed of artificial materials and seems to directly emit an internal light. The lighting is diffuse and crystalline. The solar source is not clearly identified and the scene seems to be artificially illuminated like a plastic in a closed environment. The artist in fact created a scene on which the perspective acts towards horses and riders. Even the weapons, in the hands of soldiers or on the ground, are subjected to a rigorous prospective control. The broken spears on the ground show that the pieces create a perspective grid. This regular arrangement of the fragments sorts and measures the space as happens for a tiled floor. The scene then takes place in the horizontal dimension that allows you to represent different characters. The two armies face each other in the center and are lined up on the right, the Florentine one and the Sienese one on the left. Despite the schematic articulation of space, Paolo Uccello used different points of view that make the image unreal. The painting can be divided into two horizontal halves superimposed. Below the Florentine leader who faces the Sienese army. Above are represented some hunting scenes that take place in the countryside. The horizon is not visible and the scene seems to be observed from a high position that allows a representation similar to a map. This effect is achieved in the second floor that is described with a different point of view than the first floor. The spears of the soldiers of Florence, on the left, create a regular scan of the space. They are aligned on oblique parallels.

    Piero della Francesca

    The human figure is the protagonist of Piero della Francesca’s paintings, immersed in clear atmospheres illuminated by a metaphysical light. His scenes are always very static with very balanced compositions and an atmosphere of suspension, as if waiting for something to be accomplished. The strong plasticity of the figures is taken up by Masaccio. Like Paolo Uccello, he has a geometric approach, rigorous in perspective and proportions, but, unlike him, he rejects dynamism and courtly scenes. Piero della Francesca uses very light colors, full of light, colors almost devoid of shadows that recall the shades of Beato Angelico. The incarnations are ivory. It brings into the painting the theories elaborated by Alberti in architecture.

    WORKS:

    Piero della Francesca, Baptism of Christ, 1445 ca. Tempera on panel, 167 x 116 cm. London, national Gallery

    Unlike the tree in the foreground, the one behind the man who is stripping is dry; this plant represents those who are not baptized, do not follow Christ and therefore cannot bear fruit. In the central area of the painting, on the left, in the distance, you can recognize in the small fortified village the town of Sansepolcro, here ambitiously presented as the new Jerusalem. The Jordan is thus identified with the Tiber. The table is in fact composed of a square surmounted by a semicircumference, in the center of which the artist placed the dove, whose wings extend along the diameter. On the vertical axis are distributed dove, hand and cup of the Baptist, body of Christ, whose navel coincides with the meeting of the diagonals of the square. The lower vertex of the equilateral triangle built on the upper side of the square coincides with the feet of Jesus; the other equilateral triangle, the one built on the lower side, has the vertex on the hand of the Baptist. The pentagon built inside the square contains most of the figures of the composition.

    Piero della Francesca, Flagellation of Christ, after 1459, tempera on panel, 67,5 91 cm. Urbino, Galleria nazionale delle Marche

    Piero della Francesca uses light colours and diffuse lighting. The lighting comes from above. The painting is dominated by the orderly and rational architecture of classical inspiration. Only in the background on the right you can see a piece of landscape with the sky and the crown of a tree. The escape lines converge towards a point close to the floor, to the right of the flagellator, at the height of its pelvis, and the sensation is to observe the scene from below. In this way the characters seem to be placed above a stage and assume a monumental value. The two vanishing lines of the white bands of the floor that enclose the brown tiling, create an angle of about ninety degrees. The size perspective makes the distance from the foreground to the background clear. The floor is also decorated with large geometric rectangles. These decorations function as a perspective grid that helps to perceive the depth of the space represented. The geometric perspective is therefore precise and creates a rationally measurable environment for the eye of the observer. Thus the perspective description, together with the precise reproduction of the light coming from above, also highlights the decorations on the architectures. The painting is divided into two apparently horizontal parts separated by a column. On the left there is the Flagellation and on the right the conversation of the three men. The Flagellation occupies a larger part of the left half, therefore, the right characters are confined within a limited space. Even the light-colored geometric decoration that marks the flooring, emphasizes the vertical partition of the scene.

    Piero della francesca, Pala di Montefeltro/Sacra Conversazione, 1472 - 1474, tempera on panel, 248 X 170 cm. Milan, Pinacoteca di Brera

    The Madonna is seated frontally on a throne in the center of the great Altarpiece by Piero della Francesca. His eyes are lowered and he seems to look down at Jesus asleep. The Child is lying on Mary’s knees. The Virgin wears a yellow dress decorated with purple motifs. The broad dark blue mantle, on the other hand, covers it entirely. Baby Jesus is naked and wears a piece of coral around his neck. Three elderly Saints are grouped together on the right and three others on the left. Four young angels are lined up in front of Mary. They take firm and composed poses and look toward the devotee. In addition, near the right-hand corner a man at arms is kneeling in profile. His hands are joined and he looks in front of him. He wears a heavy armor of shiny metal. From his left side then hangs a long, richly decorated sword. Behind the back you can also see a cloak gathered in folds. Finally, the helmet and the knobs that protect the hands are laid on the ground in front of him. The angels placed behind the Madonna wear bright Renaissance robes. They also wear jewels on the head and around the neck. The angel on the right is dressed in a dress similar to the Virgin. The Saints finally wear simple robes or worn-out hermit clothes.

    Antonello da Messina

    Antonello da Messina, San Girolamo nel studio, 1474 circa, oil on lime wood, 46 36 cm. London, National Gallery

    WORKS:

    Antonello da Messina, San Girolamo nel studio, around 1474, oil on lime wood, 46 36 cm. London, National Gallery

    The colors of the architecture and the studio are warm and have a center of greater saturation in the red robe of San Girolamo. The floor and views from the windows create cool counterpoints of gray and blue. The shaded parts then create strong contrasts that dig into the interior and deepen them. The main light comes from the center and emphasizes the perspective escape. Another light enters then from the windows that open at the bottom of the room. Within the strict architectural perspective are paintings of animals and characters with simple shapes but extremely detailed surfaces and decorations. The complex study in which San Girolamo works is made of wood and is represented prospectively in a perfect way. The perspective escape, underlined by the grid of the tiled floor, is central and leads directly to the Saint.

    Antonello da Messina, San Sebastiano, 1476 ca., oil on canvas transferred from panel, 171 x 85,5 cm. Dresden, Gemäldegalerie.

    Saint Sebastian is standing, half-naked, tied to a tree in the center of a square with a rope (which is seen behind his feet). The saint is seen frontally even if the bust is slightly turned to the right and has five arrows embedded in the body. Next to him there is a remnant of a column. Beyond the arches of the square you can see the view while inside it and the buildings that surround it there are people who do not seem to notice San Sebastiano. He does not seem to suffer and only feels a little ' sadness in his eyes.

    Antonello da Messina, Virgin announced, 1476-1477, oil on panel, 45 x 34.4 cm. Palermo, Galleria Regionale della Sicilia

    Antonello da Messina created the painting by binding the pigments in powder with a fat substance. This technique, unlike tempera painting, allows to obtain a very nuanced chiaroscuro and a gradual passage of tones. Moreover, thanks to the possibility of applying the colors with thin transparent veils, the artist can define the figures in detail. The Virgin depicted in the work of Antonello da Messina presents forms with well-developed volumes. Maria takes on a classic and balanced look, as opposed to the greater realism of physiognomy and the psychological characterization of the Flemish characters. The lighting creates an intimate and reserved atmosphere. The grazing light strikes Maria, illuminates her face and reveals its forms. The Virgin is immersed in an indefinite space. The lectern, however, thanks to the perspective joints suggests a geometric dimension and the depth of the space that interposes between the observer and the Madonna. The face of the Virgin is oval and falls into an ideal geometric shape. The fold of the mantle that covers Maria’s head creates an axis that connects her to the lectern painted below.

    Antonello da Messina, Ecce Homo, 1474, oil on oak, 43 x 32.4 cm. Piacenza, Collegio Alberoni.

    This work represents Christ leaning against the column of the flagellation. It is represented frontally, with the bust slightly turned to the right. There is a large emotional component that you can see from his face: the sides of his mouth facing down and the eyebrows with the external corners lowered and internal raised give the subject an extremely sad look.

    Andrea Mantegna

    Andrea Mantegna has a style characterized by the observation of nature, recovers the classic historical roots, takes great care of the details, from the renaissance takes the rational representation of reality and then realizes the works in perspective that gives us a total visibility of space. The bodies he represents often have the appearance of statues.

    WORKS:

    Andrea Mantegna, La Pala di San Zeno, main panel, 1456-1459. Panel, 4.40 x 4.50 m with original frame. Verona, Church of San Zeno

    Revolutionary character of its representation of space and perspective. This monumental and extraordinary structure that through a loggia overlooks a masterfully realized landscape is set in the high altar of the Basilica of San Zeno di Verona. The four fluted columns divide the Pala into three parts and support a small pediment dominated by an arch. The Virgin and Child sits in the center on an imposing bench, surrounded by Saints Peter, Paul, John the Evangelist, Zeno, Benedict, Lawrence, Gregory the Great and John the Baptist, arranged in a semicircle. Rich festoons of fruit and leaves adorn the scene, highlighting the red details that represent the passion of Christ.

    Andrea Mantegna, Oculo con putti, 1465-1474, fresco. Mantua, Palazzo Ducale, Camera degli Sposi This painting shows the level reached by Mantegna’s experimentation with perspective.

    This is the most famous fresco of the Chamber of the Bride and Groom because it simulates a view from below in a very spectacular way. The painted image represents a circular hole that faces directly on the blue sky. Around the edge of the opening is painted a balustrade from which protrude some female figures. There is a lady of the court and a black escort. There are some maids and some putti. There are also other references such as the peacock. Also among the groups of women there is a large vase supported by a rod from below. The cherubs are represented in various positions and some are painted beyond the balustrade, standing inward. Some white clouds are painted in the sky. Between them, the largest one seems to contain a human profile.





    Giovanni Bellini

    Giovanni Bellini is considered the initiator of the Renaissance in Venice. He is the brother-in-law of Andrea Mantegna, from whom he learns his trait in drawing, that is, the unidirectional one, Unlike him, his sign is softer and allows us to have the impression that the flesh of the figures and their vestments are realistic and no longer sculptural in appearance like his brother-in-law. The overall effect of his works is based on the shades of color and the power of light, thus obtaining a purely pictorial result. These innovations are the premise for the tonal painting that will come from the next generation of artists, including Titian.

    WORKS:

    Giovanni Bellini, Orazione nell'orto, 1465-70, tempera on panel. London, National Gallery

    Jesus, at the center of the work, is in a garden intent on praying. It is located on the top of a rock and is looking up where there is an angel holding the Eucharistic chalice (Passion). Below him are three sleeping disciples (Peter, John and James). Two important aspects of this work are the colors and the landscape: it uses soft colors that bring out all the shades of the sky and the clouds and the clothes of the main subjects; the landscape is natural and you can see two cities on the side of the work. We can also see a bridge and soldiers in the background. Use warm colors for close-ups and cooler colors for later plans.

    Giovanni Bellini, Coronation of the Virgin (Pala Pesaro), 1472 - 1474 circa, oil on panel, 262 x 240 cm. Pesaro, Musei Civici

    It is intended for the Church of San Francesco in the city of Venice. We can see Mary and Jesus sitting on a massive marble throne. On the sides there are four saints, on the left there are Saint Paul and Saint Peter, while on the right there are Saint Francis and Saint Jerome. Jesus and Mary are seated inside the architectural structure and Jesus holds in his hand a gold crown with which he is crowning Mary, as Queen of Heaven. Saint Paul holds in his hand a sword with his right hand and with his left arm he holds a heavy book. Saint Peter is reading from a book he holds in his hands. Saint Francis holds a book and his eyes are low, facing a small cross. Saint Jerome is leaning on the throne and he also holds a book. Maria wears a wide cloak that covers it entirely letting glimpse the red dress. Jesus, on the other hand, wears a finely embroidered white tunic in gold and a brown cloak. His feet are barefoot like those of the Saints in the foreground. The floor and marble are preciously decorated with marble inlays. The landscape is visible from the window in the middle of the back of the throne. At the top, in the center there is a white dove that opens its wings surrounded by a crown of angels. Finally, on the right and left twelve symmetrical angels in groups of three appear over small white clouds painted with many colors.




    Sandro Botticelli

    Sandro Botticelli was born in 1445 in Florence. In his works there is a great attention to the female figure, the most recurring figure is probably Simonetta Vespucci who will marry Giuliano de Medici, The Medici family commissioned many works to Botticelli and for this reason it is thought that the female figures present are inspired by Simonetta. In the drawing we observe a style of the line of extreme finesse that allows to delineate the shapes with sinuosity and with an aspect of continuous trend. Its style can be associated with precious colors, with magnificent effects in transparency.

    WORKS:

    Sandro Botticelli, La Primavera, 1481-1483. Tempera on panel, 203 x 314 cm. Florence, Uffizi Gallery.

    This painting was commissioned by the Medici family, and would represent the transition from earthly love to contemplated spiritual love. To read this work you must start from the right and go to the left. Starting from the right we observe Zephyr who breaks into the orange forest and grabs the nymph he loves. Then is represented the rebirth of nature after the winter season, is represented by Flora that corresponds to the union between Zephyr and the nymph, in fact, her dress is decorated with flowers that symbolize this season. At the center we find Venus, which performs a pedagogical function, and Cupid. Continuing to the left we observe three women, the Graces that symbolize the three aspects of Love, intertwined with each other in harmony. Finally on the right we find Mercury trying to dissolve the clouds with his caduceus. The work is made with vivid and very clear colors, on a very dark backdrop. To the eye there stands out the red of the robes of Venus and Mercury, which together with the oranges are the only warm colors present in the painting. The light of the landscape is cold and crystal clear and is revealed by the sky that can be seen behind the orange trees. The flowers are represented with great attention and in fact a botany expert would be able without great difficulty to say what flower it is.

    Sandro Botticelli, Birth of Venus, between 1476 and 1487, tempera on canvas, 172.5 x 278.5 cm. Florence, Uffizi Gallery

    Light diffusely illuminates the scene but the light source is not identifiable. The reflections of the long hair are enhanced by the application of gold on the canvas. The space is contracted on the first floor. The sense of depth is in fact cancelled by the linearism of the figures and by the weak chiaroscuro that is also absent in the landscape. The painting is rectangular in shape, developed horizontally. This frame allows the representation of the scene with the three groups of characters and a large portion of natural environment. The composition is central and symmetrical. Venus, the ideal subject of the painting, is located in the center at the vertical. Instead, the two groups of characters side by side, specularly, left and right. The centrality of the goddess is underlined by the compositional triangle of which Venus is the vertex. The two lateral groups represent the sides of the triangle. Venus, the goddess of love, mediates between physical passion and spiritual purity. The message of the painting thus becomes the necessary search for a balance between earthly passions and spiritual elevation. The contrast between the actions of the two lateral groups, balanced but compositionally, underlines this message.

    Pietro Perugino

    Pietro Perugino was born in Pieve in 1448 and died in Fontignano in 1523. He is also known as "the divine painter" because he was considered one of the best painters of the time, as well as one of the greatest exponents of humanism and the greatest representative of Umbrian painting. Her style is sweet, calm and refined and will boast replicas and imitations. His painting is inspired by those of great masters of the time such as Verrocchio and Piero della Francesca.

    WORKS:

    Pietro Perugino, Delivery of the keys to Saint Peter, 1481-1482. Fresco, 335 x 550 cm. Rome, Vatican, Sistine Chapel.

    This fresco was made by Perugino (probably with help from other artists) to decorate the walls of the Sistine Chapel. Like other works by Perugino, this is a testimony to the painting of the fifteenth century in which there was the idea of representing through art nature (albeit with the presence of religious subjects). This fresco depicts Jesus in the foreground, giving Saint Peter (who is kneeling before him) the keys to divine and temporal power. Around these two main subjects there are the apostles (Judas stands on his back in the group on the left and is represented with the aureole) and other people contemporary to Perugino (Alfonso di Calabria, the architect Dolci, Pontelli, Bregno, Pinturicchio, Bartolomeo della Gatta and Alfonso d'Aragona). In the background there are two main situations: on the left the payment of the tribute is represented, while on the right the attempted stoning of Christ. In the background there are buildings with Renaissance forms: the triumphal arches and the temple of Jerusalem symbolizing the Jewish religion and the pagan religion. On the temple there is a Latin inscription praising Pope Sixtus IV.

    Pietro Perugino, San Sebastiano, around 1495, Louvre, Paris

    The saint stands in the foreground in the center of the painting, creating a strongly symmetrical composition. It is tied to a column of red porphyry and its naked body has a modeled of an ideal beauty definitely inspired by ancient statuary, such as the Doriphorus of Policleto. Apart from the thin and semi-transparent thong, the saint is naked, with his gaze turned to heaven. The lighting is clear and softly suffused, both in the landscape, which lightens towards the horizon according to the Flemish example filtered by the Florentines, and in the modeled body, made with an anatomical attention of great realism.